Performance enhancement of microbial fuel cells through g-C₃N₄-embedded biochar anodes

Tsuyoshi Araoa; Trang Nakamoto; Kozo Taguchi

doi:10.21625/essd.v10i4.1250

Tsuyoshi Araoa , Trang Nakamoto , Kozo Taguchi

https://doi.org/10.21625/essd.v10i4.1250

Issue
Vol. 10 Issue 4 (2025)

Submitted
October 7, 2025

Accepted
December 21, 2025

Published
December 31, 2025

Keywords:

Microbial Fuel Cell, Graphitic Carbon Nitride, Biochar Anode, Floating Cathode, Sustainable Energy

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Abstract

Global demand for sustainable energy technologies capable of simultaneously generating electricity and treating wastewater has intensified interest in microbial fuel cells (MFCs). However, their practical application remains limited by low power density and insufficient electron‐transfer efficiency at the anode. This study addresses this challenge by embedding graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄), a metal-free and environmentally benign material, into rice-husk-derived biochar to develop a low-cost, sustainable anode. Unlike conventional surface-coated electrodes, the embedded configuration enhances internal electron-transfer pathways and promotes microbial colonization throughout the electrode matrix. Anodes with 5, 10, and 12 wt% g-C₃N₄ were evaluated to clarify how nitrogen-rich functional groups and carbon conductivity interact to influence MFC performance. The 5 wt% anode exhibited the most favorable electrochemical behavior, achieving a maximum power density of 43.245 μW/cm²—approximately 1.9 times higher than the unmodified anode—highlighting the effectiveness of moderate nitrogen incorporation. Excessive loading reduced performance due to impaired conductivity. These findings provide new insight into the design of sustainable, biomass-derived anode materials and demonstrate the potential of g-C₃N₄-embedded biochar for scalable, environmentally friendly MFC applications. This work contributes to the global scientific effort toward low-cost, renewable energy systems for wastewater treatment and decentralized power generation.

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References

Hirose, S., Nguyen, T. D., & Taguchi, K. (2023).Development of low-cost block-shaped anodes for practical soil microbial fuel cells. Energy Reports, 9 (3), 144–150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.12.122

Jian, M., Xue, P., Zhang, X., Xing, Y., Ma, L., Lv, X., & Shi, K. (2024).Enhanced performance of acridine degradation and power generation by microbial fuel cells with g-C₃N₄/PANI-DA/CF anodes. Chemosphere, 362, 141752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141752 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141752

Li, W.-W., Sheng, G.-P., Liu, X.-W., & Yu, H.-Q. (2011).Recent advances in the separators for microbial fuel cells. Bioresource Technology, 102, 244–252. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.090

Logan, B. E., Hamelers, B., Rozendal, R., Schröder, U., Keller, J., Freguia, S., Aelterman, P., Verstraete, W., & Rabaey, K. (2006). Microbial fuel cells: Methodology and technology. Environmental Science & Technology, 40(17), 5181–5192. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0605016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es0605016

Mishra, A., Mehta, A., Basu, S., Shetti, N. P., Reddy, K. R., & Aminabhavi, T. M. (2019).Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄)-based metal-free photocatalysts for water splitting: A review. Carbon, 149, 693–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2019.04.104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2019.04.104

Mishra, A., Mehta, A., Kainth, S., & Basu, S. (2018). A comparative study on the effect of different precursors for the synthesis and efficient photocatalytic activity of g-C₃N₄/TiO₂/bentonite nanocomposites. Journal of Materials Science, 53, 13126–13142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2565-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2565-0

Pant, D., Van Bogaert, G., Diels, L., & Vanbroekhoven, K. (2010). A review of the substrates used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for sustainable energy production. Bioresource Technology, 101, 1533–1543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.10.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.10.017

Sayed, E. T., & Nakagawa, N. (2017). Critical issues in the performance of yeast-based microbial fuel cells. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 93 (6), 1588–1594. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.5527 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.5527

Sayed, E. T., Abdelkareem, M. A., Alawadhi, H., Elsaid, K., Wilberforce, T., & Olabi, A. G. (2021).Graphitic carbon nitride/carbon brush composite as a novel anode for yeast-based microbial fuel cells. Energy, 221, 119849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.119849 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.119849

Sayed, E. T., Shehata, N., Abdelkareem, M. A., & Atieh, M. A. (2020). Recent progress in environmentally friendly bio-electrochemical devices for simultaneous water desalination and wastewater treatment. Science of the Total Environment, 748, 141046. https://doi.org/10.7748/phc.2016.e1162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141046

Yan, S. C., Li, Z. S., & Zou, Z. G. (2009). Photodegradation performance of g-C₃N₄ fabricated by directly heating melamine. Langmuir, 25(17), 10397–10401. https://doi.org/10.1021/la900923z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/la900923z

Authors

Tsuyoshi Araoa

Master student of Electronic Systems at Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan

[email protected] (Primary Contact)

Trang Nakamoto

Assistant Professor of R-GIRO, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan

Kozo Taguchi

Professor of the College of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan

Araoa, T., Nakamoto, T., & Taguchi, K. (2025). Performance enhancement of microbial fuel cells through g-C₃N₄-embedded biochar anodes. Environmental Science & Sustainable Development, 10(4), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.21625/essd.v10i4.1250

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Received 2025-10-07
Accepted 2025-12-21
Published 2025-12-31

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1. Introduction

In recent years, rapid technological innovation and global population growth have led to a dramatic increase in global energy demand and freshwater consumption. Under these circumstances, dependence on fossil fuels as conventional energy sources has resulted in serious environmental impacts such as CO₂ emissions, resource depletion, and water contamination, creating a major barrier to achieving a sustainable society. To address these issues, the development of renewable and environmentally compatible energy systems is urgently required.

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have attracted increasing attention as a bioelectrochemical technology capable of simultaneously treating wastewater and generating electricity by utilizing electrogenic microorganisms as biocatalysts (Pant et al., 2010) (Sayed et al., 2020). In MFCs, electrogenic microorganisms oxidize organic substrates at the anode, releasing electrons, protons, and carbon dioxide. (Pant et al., 2010). These electrons travel through an external circuit to the cathode, where they react with oxygen to form water, enabling both wastewater purification and power generation (Sayed & Nakagawa, 2017). However, low power output remains one of the most critical challenges limiting the practical application of MFCs. Improving electron-transfer efficiency and optimizing anode materials are essential for achieving stable, high-performance operation. Because the anode directly mediates electron transfer and strongly influences biofilm development, its material properties and surface chemistry are pivotal to overall MFC performance.

To overcome these limitations, this study focuses on graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄), an environmentally friendly and easily synthesized metal-free catalyst that has recently gained attention for its nitrogen-rich functional groups and stability ((Mishra et al., 2018);(Mishra et al., 2019)). While previous research has mainly improved anode performance by coating g-C₃N₄ onto carbon surfaces ((Jian et al., 2024); (Sayed et al., 2021)), such surface-only modification may not fully enhance internal electron transport or microbial activity throughout the porous structure. Moreover, the influence of g-C₃N₄ distribution within biochar materials and its effect on the balance between conductivity and biofilm formation has not been sufficiently examined. While prior studies have investigated the benefits of carbonbased anode modifications, the specific role of g-C₃N₄ within the anode matrix and how its distribution interacts with microbial and electrochemical processes remains underexplored. This study fills this gap by providing comparative insight into these interrelated mechanisms.

The main contribution of this work is to systematically evaluate how different amounts of g-C₃N₄ incorporation influence biofilm development and electron-transfer behavior in biochar-based anodes. The results demonstrate that 5 wt% provides the optimal balance by enhancing microbial colonization and maintaining sufficient conductivity. Furthermore, embedding within the biochar matrix, rather than coating it only on the surface, offers new insight into forming internal electron-transfer pathways that improve overall MFC performance.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Synthesis of g-C₃N₄

Synthesis of g-C₃N₄ was performed by conventional methods (Yan et al., 2009). Melamine was purchased from Wako Pure Chemical Industries. To ensure reproducibility, the heating program was carefully controlled to prevent premature decomposition and promote polymerization of melamine into g-C₃N₄. The sample was placed in a crucible and sealed with a lid to prevent sublimation. First, the sample was heated to 500°C at a heating rate of 20°C/min and held for 2 hours. Then, the heating rate was changed to 5°C/min, and the sample was heated to 520°C and held for 2 hours. After the heat treatment, the sample was cooled naturally to room temperature, and the resulting solid was powdered using a mortar. Figure 1 shows the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the synthesized g-C₃N₄ powder. The synthesized particles ranged in size from approximately 10 to 40µm.

Figure 1.SEM image of g-C₃N₄.(source: by authors)

2.2. Electrode Preparation

Rice-husk-derived carbon (RHC) was selected for its porous structure, high surface area, and low production cost, making it suitable for microbial colonization. The RHC was subjected to alkaline etching by stirring in a 6 mM sodium hydroxide solution at 90°C for 24 hours. After treatment, the mixture was carefully rinsed with deionized water and then air-dried at 60 °C for 12 hours. The resulting material was then ground into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle.

Electrode fabrication was carried out according to the method described in (Hirose et al., 2023). For the cathode, a mixture consisting of Co-MnO₂ catalyst (0.75 g), RHC (0.525 g), and carbon ink (3 mL of commercial sumi ink) was prepared and used as the catalyst layer. For the anode, a mixture of RHC (0.9 g) and sumi ink (3.5 mL) was homogenized and cast into a 2 cm × 2 cm mold fabricated by 3D printing. A stainless steel mesh was embedded into the mixture, and the electrode was air-dried at 60°C for 24 hours.

To incorporate graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) into the anode material, the powdered RHC was modified by dispersing 5 wt%, 10 wt%, and 12 wt% g-C₃N₄ in methanol and then stirring for 24 hours. After dispersion, the solid was collected via centrifugation and dried at 60°C for 24 hours to obtain g-C₃N₄-modified RHC. The resulting modified carbon material was then mixed with sumi ink and used to fabricate the g-C₃N₄-containing anode electrodes.

2.3. Preparation of Culture Medium

Luria-Bertani (LB) medium was utilized as the nutrient source for microbial cultivation. The medium was prepared by dissolving 5.0 g of tryptone, 2.5 g of yeast extract, and 5.0 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) in 380-400 mL of deionized water, ensuring that the total volume would not exceed 400 mL after all components were added. Separately, 0.5 g of sodium hydroxide was dissolved in 40 mL of deionized water, and 2.5 mL of this solution was added to the primary mixture. If the total volume was still below 400 mL at this stage, deionized water was added to bring it to 400 mL. Subsequently, an additional 100 mL of deionized water was added, and the final mixture was sterilized by autoclaving to complete the preparation of LB medium.

2.4. Configuration of the MFC

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) employed in this study was constructed as a single-chamber system equipped with a floating air cathode, as illustrated in Figure 2. In this system, the anode and cathode coexist in the same chamber, simplifying the structure and improving ease of operation. The chamber was filled with a reaction solution composed of 100 mL of Luria-Bertani (LB) medium as a nutrient medium and 500 mL of water for dilution. Mud collected from the natural environment in Japan was used as the microbial source, of which 2.5 mL was added to the reaction system.

Compared with the double-chamber type, the single-chamber MFC has a simpler structure and does not require an intermediate ion-exchange membrane, thereby reducing manufacturing costs and internal resistance. In addition, since oxygen from the air can be supplied directly to the cathode (Li et al., 2011), (Logan et al., 2006), it does not require an external energy supply and has excellent operational efficiency and scalability, making it a promising configuration for practical use.

Figure 2.(a) Schematic diagram of a single-chamber microbial fuel cell with a floating air cathode. (b) Float model diagram.(source: by authors)

2.5. Evaluation of MFC operation

A fixed 10 kΩ external resistor was continuously connected between the anode and cathode of the MFC throughout the experiment to ensure a stable discharge condition. Experiments were performed under controlled ambient conditions at 25 ± 1 °C. Daily fluctuations in solution level caused by evaporation were compensated for by replenishing with tap water as needed. Electrode potential and power density were used as indicators of performance. The external resistance varied in steps from 10,000 Ω to 200 Ω, and the voltage at both ends at each resistance value was measured. From these voltage values and the corresponding resistance values, the current and power were calculated and further divided by the effective surface area of the anode to obtain the current density and power density. In addition, power density measurements were performed multiple times during the experimental period to evaluate changes in the power generation characteristics of the MFC over time. Ag/AgCl electrodes were employed as reference electrodes to measure the electrode potentials. The power generation voltage (V) of the MFC was defined as the potential difference between the anode and the cathode, and is represented by the following equation.

V =E cat h ode -E anode (1)

The voltage applied to the external resistors was measured using a data acquisition device (DAQ) controlled by LabVIEW, which automatically recorded voltage data at 15-minute intervals.

2.6. g-C₃N₄ evaluation

To investigate whether g-C₃N₄ was successfully incorporated and supported on the rice husk biochar, the elemental composition of the particles was analyzed using Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS).

3. Experimental Results

3.1. Composition of g-C₃N₄-Modified Biochar

Figures. 3 and 4 provide a comprehensive visualization of the structural and elemental characteristics of biochar modified with 10 wt% g-C₃N₄. Figure 3(a) presents the SEM image of g-C₃N₄-modified biochar, illustrating its surface morphology. Figure 3(b), (c), (d), and (e) show the elemental mapping images of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and silicon (Si), illustrating their respective spatial distributions and providing evidence for the successful incorporation of g-C₃N₄ into the biochar structure.

Figure 4 shows the corresponding EDS spectrum of the modified biochar; the X-axis corresponds to the energy of the X-rays, while the Y-axis indicates the signal intensity. The mass percentages of detected elements are summarized in Table 1. The measured elemental composition consisted of carbon (80.83%), nitrogen (6.41%), oxygen (10.93%), and silicon (1.83%).

In contrast, the EDS results for the unmodified biochar, shown in Table 2, indicate the absence of nitrogen. These data clearly demonstrate that g-C₃N₄ was successfully incorporated into the biochar using the experimental method employed in this study.

Figure 3.Morphology and elemental mapping of biochar modified with 10 % g-C₃N₄. (a) SEM micrograph, and (b) carbon (C), (c) nitrogen (N), (d) oxygen (O), (e) silicon (Si) mapping. (source: by authors)

Figure 4.EDS spectrum of biochar modified with 10 wt% g-C₃N₄.(source: by authors)

Table 1.Elemental composition of g-C₃N₄-modified biochar
Chemical　element	Mass (%)
C	80.83
N	6.41
O	10.93
Si	1.83
total	100.00

Table 2.Elemental composition of unmodified biochar
Chemical　element	Mass (%)
C	86.04
N	0.00
O	12.51
Si	1.45
total	100.00

3.2. Evaluation of the impact of g-C₃N₄ mixed anodes

Figure 5 illustrates the temporal evolution of anode potentials relative to the Ag/AgCl reference, demonstrating the effect of g-C₃N₄ incorporation into the anode material under the same cathode conditions. By keeping the cathode conditions constant, the changes observed are attributed to the anode configuration, as the potential was maintained. Focusing on the anode potential, the anode with 5 wt% g-C₃N₄ had the highest potential at -540 mV at 14 days, higher than the other conditions. The more negative anode potential observed in the 5 wt% electrode indicates greater electron-accepting capability, suggesting improved microbial electron-transfer kinetics. This trend aligns with reports that nitrogen-rich materials facilitate microbial adhesion and redox activity. However, since g-C₃N₄ is not intrinsically highly conductive, increasing the loading to 10 wt% or 12 wt% diminished the electrochemical performance. This suggests that the addition of g-C₃N₄ improves anodic performance only in the appropriate concentration range, beyond which the balance between conductivity and microbial activity may become unbalanced and counterproductive.

Figure 5.Evolution of Ag/AgCl potentials in MFCs using biochar anodes with different g-C₃N₄ loadings. (source: by authors)

This behavior suggests that g-C₃N₄ incorporation enhances microbial electron transfer at moderate loading, while excessive incorporation disrupts conductive pathways within the carbon matrix. The superior performance at 5 wt%, therefore, reflects a more favorable internal distribution of g-C₃N₄ that supports both microbial activity and electron flow.

3.3. Evaluation of the impact of g-C3N4 on the power density

Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the electrochemical performance of the MFC with g-C₃N₄ added to the anodes at different percentages (5, 10, and 12 wt%). Figure 6 shows the change over time of the maximum power density measured every 2 days starting on day 8 of installation. Across all metrics, the 5 wt% g-C₃N₄ anode exhibited superior performance. Notably, on day 14, the maximum power density reached 43.245 μW/cm², approximately 1.9 times higher than the 23.256 μW/cm² of the anode without addition. In the power density curve, the 5 wt% addition condition also showed a significant increase in power output relative to current density compared to the other conditions, confirming that it has excellent energy conversion efficiency. These results suggest that the moderate addition of g-C₃N₄ (5 wt%) effectively promotes microbial activity and electron transfer on the anode surface and improves MFC performance. On the other hand, higher additions (10 wt% and 12 wt%) tended to suppress performance, suggesting that excess g-C₃N₄ may adversely affect electron transfer and microbial activity.

Figure 6.Maximum power density versus g-C₃N₄ addition and number of days.(source: by authors)

Figure 7.Power density curves on day 14 with varying g-C₃N₄ content. (source: by authors)

As shown in Figure 7, the anode containing 5 wt% g-C₃N₄ exhibits the highest power density over the entire current density range. This result suggests that moderate g-C₃N₄ incorporation provides a favorable balance between enhanced microbial activity and sufficient electrical conductivity, whereas excessive loading negatively affects electron transport

These results indicate that the performance trend is governed by how g-C₃N₄ incorporation modifies the internal electron pathways and microbial attachment sites. At 5 wt%, g-C₃N₄ is sufficiently integrated to enhance biofilm formation and electron transport, whereas higher loadings disrupt conductivity and reduce efficiency. The observed performance differences can therefore be interpreted based solely on how g-C₃N₄ incorporation affects internal conductivity and microbial colonization. This explanation strengthens the validity of the case study without requiring additional experiments or simulations. This study provides a clear framework for understanding how nitrogen-rich additives influence both the biological and conductive properties of carbonaceous anodes. By presenting a comparative evaluation based solely on controlled loading variations, the work offers insights that are broadly applicable to the design of future biomass-derived MFC electrodes.

4. Conclusion.

This study demonstrated that embedding graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) into rice-husk-derived biochar significantly enhances microbial fuel cell performance through improved electron transfer and biofilm development. Among the tested loading amounts, 5 wt% g-C₃N₄ produced the most favorable electrochemical behavior, achieving a power density nearly 1.9 times higher than the unmodified anode and exhibiting the most stable anode potential. These findings reveal the importance of balancing nitrogen-induced microbial activity with the electrical conductivity of the carbon matrix. The results confirm that g-C₃N₄-embedded biochar represents a practical, low-cost, and environmentally sustainable anode material. Future research should focus on elucidating the detailed mechanisms of microbe–g-C₃N₄ interactions, optimizing structural properties, and evaluating long-term performance in real wastewater environments.

Future studies should investigate the long-term stability of g-C₃N₄-embedded anodes under fluctuating environmental conditions and continuous-flow MFC systems. Structural optimization of pore size distribution, nitrogen content, and surface functionalization may further enhance microbial electron transfer efficiency. Additionally, metagenomic analysis of the microbial community would provide insights into how g-C₃N₄ influences microbial composition and metabolic pathways. Scaling-up experiments and cost evaluations will also be essential to assess the feasibility of practical applications in wastewater treatment systems.

Ackowledgment

The abstract of this paper was presented at the Green Urbanism (GU) Conference-9 th Edition, which was held on the 25 th -27 th of November 2025.

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declare that there is no competing interest

References

Hirose S., Nguyen T.D., Taguchi K.. of low-cost block-shaped anodes for practical soil microbial fuel cells. Energy Reports. 2023; 9(3):144-150.
Jian M., Xue P., Zhang X., Xing Y., Ma L., Lv X., Shi K.. performance of acridine degradation and power generation by microbial fuel cells with g-C3N4/PANI-DA/CF anodes. Chemosphere. 2024; 362DOI
Li W.-W., Sheng G.-P., Liu X.-W., Yu H.-Q.. advances in the separators for microbial fuel cells. Bioresource Technology. 2011; 102:244-252.
Logan B.E., Hamelers B., Rozendal R., Schröder U., Keller J., Freguia S., Aelterman P., Verstraete W., Rabaey K.. Microbial fuel cells: Methodology and technology. Environmental Science & Technology. 2006; 40(17):5181-5192. DOI
Mishra A., Mehta A., Basu S., Shetti N.P., Reddy K.R., Aminabhavi T.M.. carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-based metal-free photocatalysts for water splitting: A review. Carbon. 2019; 149:693-721. DOI
Mishra A., Mehta A., Kainth S., Basu S.. A comparative study on the effect of different precursors for the synthesis and efficient photocatalytic activity of g-C3N4/TiO2/bentonite nanocomposites. Journal of Materials Science. 2018; 53:13126-13142. DOI
Pant D., Bogaert G., Diels L., Vanbroekhoven K.. A review of the substrates used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for sustainable energy production. Bioresource Technology. 2010; 101:1533-1543. DOI
Sayed E.T., Nakagawa N.. Critical issues in the performance of yeast-based microbial fuel cells. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology. 2017; 93(6):1588-1594. DOI
Sayed E.T., Abdelkareem M.A., Alawadhi H., Elsaid K., Wilberforce T., Olabi A.G.. carbon nitride/carbon brush composite as a novel anode for yeast-based microbial fuel cells. Energy. 2021; 221DOI
Sayed E.T., Shehata N., Abdelkareem M.A., Atieh M.A.. Recent progress in environmentally friendly bio-electrochemical devices for simultaneous water desalination and wastewater treatment. Science of the Total Environment. 2020; 748DOI
Yan S.C., Li Z.S., Zou Z.G.. Photodegradation performance of g-C3N4 fabricated by directly heating melamine. Langmuir. 2009; 25(17):10397-10401. DOI

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[BIBR-1] Hirose S., Nguyen T.D., Taguchi K.. of low-cost block-shaped anodes for practical soil microbial fuel cells. Energy Reports. 2023; 9(3):144-150.

[BIBR-2] Jian M., Xue P., Zhang X., Xing Y., Ma L., Lv X., Shi K.. performance of acridine degradation and power generation by microbial fuel cells with g-C3N4/PANI-DA/CF anodes. Chemosphere. 2024; 362DOI

[BIBR-3] Li W.-W., Sheng G.-P., Liu X.-W., Yu H.-Q.. advances in the separators for microbial fuel cells. Bioresource Technology. 2011; 102:244-252.

[BIBR-4] Logan B.E., Hamelers B., Rozendal R., Schröder U., Keller J., Freguia S., Aelterman P., Verstraete W., Rabaey K.. Microbial fuel cells: Methodology and technology. Environmental Science & Technology. 2006; 40(17):5181-5192. DOI

[BIBR-5] Mishra A., Mehta A., Basu S., Shetti N.P., Reddy K.R., Aminabhavi T.M.. carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-based metal-free photocatalysts for water splitting: A review. Carbon. 2019; 149:693-721. DOI

[BIBR-6] Mishra A., Mehta A., Kainth S., Basu S.. A comparative study on the effect of different precursors for the synthesis and efficient photocatalytic activity of g-C3N4/TiO2/bentonite nanocomposites. Journal of Materials Science. 2018; 53:13126-13142. DOI

[BIBR-7] Pant D., Bogaert G., Diels L., Vanbroekhoven K.. A review of the substrates used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for sustainable energy production. Bioresource Technology. 2010; 101:1533-1543. DOI

[BIBR-8] Sayed E.T., Nakagawa N.. Critical issues in the performance of yeast-based microbial fuel cells. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology. 2017; 93(6):1588-1594. DOI

[BIBR-9] Sayed E.T., Abdelkareem M.A., Alawadhi H., Elsaid K., Wilberforce T., Olabi A.G.. carbon nitride/carbon brush composite as a novel anode for yeast-based microbial fuel cells. Energy. 2021; 221DOI

[BIBR-10] Sayed E.T., Shehata N., Abdelkareem M.A., Atieh M.A.. Recent progress in environmentally friendly bio-electrochemical devices for simultaneous water desalination and wastewater treatment. Science of the Total Environment. 2020; 748DOI

[BIBR-11] Yan S.C., Li Z.S., Zou Z.G.. Photodegradation performance of g-C3N4 fabricated by directly heating melamine. Langmuir. 2009; 25(17):10397-10401. DOI

Performance enhancement of microbial fuel cells through g-C₃N₄-embedded biochar anodes

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