Assessment of the Current State of Construction Materials of Some Historical Monuments in Georgia
Abstract
The study aims to assess the current condition of construction materials used in four significant historical monuments in Georgia - Sioni Cathedral (Tbilisi, VI-XI century), Anchiskhati Basilica (Tbilisi, VI century), Barakoni Church (Racha region, XVIII century), and Nikortsminda Cathedral (Racha region, XI century) - through mineralogical and physical-mechanical analyses. The methodology combines X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and standard physical-mechanical tests, and the results are compared with established reference values.
XRD analysis revealed distinct mineralogical compositions for each structure. In Sioni’s tuff slabs (19th century), the dominant phases include quartz (40%), kaolinite, and Na-montmorillonite - all of which are highly hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture-induced degradation. Anchiskhati’s dressed tuff showed 25% quartz, Ca-Na feldspar, clay phases, and traces of kaersutite, indicating a relatively complex and weather-sensitive matrix. Barakoni’s dolomitic stone contains (Ca, Mg)CO₃ dolomite and CaCO₃ calcite, both susceptible to chemical weathering, especially from acid rain and salt crystallization. In Nikortsminda’s sandstone, dominant phases include calcite, quartz, and clinoptilolite (a zeolite), which contributes to increased capillarity and water retention, enhancing decay risks.
Physical-mechanical analysis indicates significant deterioration across all sites: the porosity of the Sioni building material increased by 12.5%, water absorption increased by up to 5%, and the strength decreased by 24%. In Anchiskhati, the porosity increased by 5%, and the strength decreased by 28%. In Barakoni, the strength decreased by 38%, while the porosity of Nikortsminda sandstone increased by 33%, and the strength decreased by 29%.
The results demonstrate that the presence of clay minerals, zeolites, and carbonates correlates with increased porosity, reduced strength, and higher susceptibility to environmental factors. These findings emphasize the necessity of tailored conservation approaches to ensure the long-term protection of Georgia’s architectural heritage.
Full text article
References
Alves, C., Figueiredo, C. A. M., Sanjurjo-Sánchez, J., & Hernández, A. C. (2021). Salt weathering of natural stone: A review of comparative laboratory studies. Heritage, 4(3), 1554–1565. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030086
Basu, S., Orr, S. A., & Aktas, Y. D. (2023). A geological perspective on climate change and building stone deterioration in London: Implications for urban stone-built heritage research and management. Atmosphere, 11(8), Article 788. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080788
Beridze, V. (1954). Tbilisi Sioni. State Publishing House "Soviet Georgia". https://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/335191/1/Tbilisis_Sioni.pdf
Beridze, V. (1974). Ancient Georgian architecture. Metsniereba. https://iverieli.nplg.gov.ge/handle/1234/335407?locale=ka
Beridze, V. (2014). History of Georgian architecture. Ministry of Culture and Monument Protection of Georgia; Giorgi Chubinashvili National Center for Research on the History of Georgian Art and Monument Protection. https://elfiles.emis.ge/uploads/53285/beridze-vol.-1_watermark.pdf
Cacciotti, R., Sardella, A., Drdácký, M., & Bonazza, A. (2024). A methodology for vulnerability assessment of cultural heritage in extreme climate changes. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 15, 404–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-024-00564-8
Cappai, M., Sanna, U., & Pia, G. (2024). A fuzzy model for studying kinetic decay phenomena in Genna Maria Nuraghe: Material properties, environmental data, accelerated ageing, and model calculations. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 21, Article e03513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03513
Cardell, C., Benavente, D., & Rodríguez-Gordillo, J. (2008). Weathering of limestone building material by mixed sulfate solutions: Characterization of stone microstructure, reaction products and decay forms. Materials Characterization, 59(10), 1371–1385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2007.12.003
Chokheli, K., & Khelidze, G. (2022). Determining of the river run-off and developing of the control methodology using the example of existing energy-purpose water reservoirs. International Journal of Novel Research and Development, 7(4), 808–817. https://www.ijnrd.org/papers/IJNRD2204098.pdf
Elert, K., Ruiz-Agudo, E., & Jroundi, F. (2021). Degradation of ancient Maya carved tuff stone at Copan and its bacterial bioconservation. npj Materials Degradation, 5, Article 44. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41529-021-00191-4
El-Gohary, M. A. (2016). A holistic approach to the assessment of the groundwater destructive effects on stone decay in Edfu temple using AAS, SEM-EDX and XRD. Environmental Earth Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4849-x
Elizbarashvili, E. (2007). Climatic resources of Georgia (p. 425). Institute of Hydrometeorology Press. https://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/6090/1/Saqartvelos%20_Klimaturi_%20Resursebi.pdf
Espinosa-Marzal, R. M., Hamilton, A., McNall, M., Whitaker, K., & Scherer, G. W. (2011). The chemomechanics of crystallization during rewetting of limestone impregnated with sodium sulfate. Journal of Materials Research, 26(12), 1472–1481. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2011.34
Godts, S., Orr, S. A., Steiger, M., Stahlbuhk, A., De Kock, T., Desarnaud, J., De Clercq, H., & Cnudde, V. (2023). Salt mixtures in stone weathering. Scientific Reports, 13, Article 13306. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40590-y
Hernández-Montes, E., Hdz-Gil, L., Coletti, C., Dilaria, S., Germinario, L., & Mazzoli, C. (2023). Prediction model for the evolution of the deterioration of bricks in heritage buildings in Venice caused by climate change. Heritage, 6(1), 483–491. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6010025
Kanth, A. P., & Soni, A. K. (2023). Application of nanocomposites for conservation of materials of cultural heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 59, 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2022.11.010
Khoshtaria, D. (2023). Medieval Georgian churches*:** A concise overview of architecture*. Artanuji Publishing. https://rustaveli.org.ge/res/docs/067cd6f7539612d9b0fed3c7523fa5d17bf098e5.pdf
Melikidze, I. G. (Ed.). (1967). Physical and technological properties of rocks of Georgian deposits: Collection. Metsniereba (Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, Institute of Mining Mechanics, Mining and Explosion Physics named after G. A. Tsulikidze).
National Environmental Agency of Georgia. (2024). Hydrometeorological data archives.
Özgünler, S. A., & Karkas, Z. S. (2024). Effectiveness and durability of conservation treatments on volcanic tuff stones. International Journal of Conservation Science, 15(3), 1165–1188. https://doi.org/10.36868/IJCS.2024.03.02
Sass, O., & Heil, S. (2024). The role of moisture and salt distribution in the weathering of the medieval cave town of Uplistsikhe, Georgia. Heritage Science, 12, Article 197. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-024-01310-5
Sesana, E. (2012). Climate change impacts on cultural heritage: A literature review. WIREs Climate Change, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.710
Shavliashvili, L. (2023). Arsenic contamination in soils of Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti region of Georgia. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Research (Barcelona, Spain).
Shavliashvili, L., Kuchava, G., Tabatadze, M., Shubladze, E., & Buachidze, N. (2025). Arsenic contamination of natural waters, soils and food products in Georgia. AiBi Revista de Investigación, Administración e Ingeniería, 13(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.15649/2346030X.3763
Shekofteh, A., Molina, E., Arizzi, A., Cultrone, G., Ahmadi, H., & Yazdi, M. (2019). Characterization and damage assessment of stones used in the Pasargadae World Heritage Site, Achaemenian period. International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 13(4), 521–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2018.1436728
Siegesmund, S., Gross, C. J., & Dohrmann, R. (2023). Moisture expansion of tuff stones and sandstones. Environmental Earth Sciences, 82, Article 146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-10809-2
Smith, B., & Jones, A. (2018). The ethics of modern materials in heritage restoration: Incompatibility and reversibility. Journal of Architectural Conservation, 24(2), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/13556207.2018.1478049
State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. (1962). Materials and products from natural stone (SNiP I-B.8-62) [In Russian].
UNESCO. (2025). Nikortsminda Cathedral: Tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5229/
Wedekind, W., López-Doncel, R., Dohrmann, R., et al. (2013). Weathering of volcanic tuff rocks caused by moisture expansion. Environmental Earth Sciences, 69, 1203–1224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2158-1
Wu, Y., Shen, J., Zhang, J., & Zhang, B. (2022). Environmental factors accelerate the deterioration of tuff stone heritage: A case study of a stone house in Southeast China. Buildings, 12(2), Article 188. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12020188
Yan, Y., & Wang, Y. (2024). A review of atmospheric deterioration and sustainable conservation of calcareous stone in historical buildings. Sustainability, 16(23), Article 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310751
Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- The Author shall grant to the Publisher and its agents the nonexclusive perpetual right and license to publish, archive, and make accessible the Work in whole or in part in all forms of media now or hereafter known under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License or its equivalent, which, for the avoidance of doubt, allows others to copy, distribute, and transmit the Work under the following conditions:
- Attribution: other users must attribute the Work in the manner specified by the author as indicated on the journal Web site;
With the understanding that the above condition can be waived with permission from the Author and that where the Work or any of its elements is in the public domain under applicable law, that status is in no way affected by the license.
- The Author is able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the nonexclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the Work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), as long as there is provided in the document an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post online a pre-publication manuscript (but not the Publisher's final formatted PDF version of the Work) in institutional repositories or on their Websites prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (see The Effect of Open Access). Any such posting made before acceptance and publication of the Work shall be updated upon publication to include a reference to the Publisher-assigned DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and a link to the online abstract for the final published Work in the Journal.
- Upon Publisher's request, the Author agrees to furnish promptly to Publisher, at the Author's own expense, written evidence of the permissions, licenses, and consents for use of third-party material included within the Work, except as determined by Publisher to be covered by the principles of Fair Use.
- The Author represents and warrants that:
- The Work is the Author's original work;
- The Author has not transferred, and will not transfer, exclusive rights in the Work to any third party;
- The Work is not pending review or under consideration by another publisher;
- The Work has not previously been published;
- The Work contains no misrepresentation or infringement of the Work or property of other authors or third parties; and
- The Work contains no libel, invasion of privacy, or other unlawful matter.
- The Author agrees to indemnify and hold Publisher harmless from Author's breach of the representations and warranties contained in Paragraph 7 above, as well as any claim or proceeding relating to Publisher's use and publication of any content contained in the Work, including third-party content.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Article Details
Accepted 2026-03-16
Published 2026-07-31