The EPR program is an innovative procedure for product management that provides several benefits. In this overview, the main advantages of EPR, such as waste reduction, resource conservation, pollution avoidance, economic growth, environmentally friendly design, transparency, and a greater public understanding… are described. These advantages highlight the critical role that EPR plays in establishing a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future.

EPR programs have made significant contributions to waste collection and recycling efforts. Under this scheme, collection and recycling rates of products can be increased due to the financial support for proper waste management (Julian Ahlers et al., 2021). EPR provides a financial incentive for companies to build more efficient recycling systems by putting the responsibility for end-of-life product management on them (Campbell‐Johnston et al., 2021). For example, between 1997 and 2000, container and packaging trash recycling in Japan rose by 27% (1.25 to 1.59 million tonnes) (O.E.C.D., 2014). Moreover, the percentage of waste that is recycled in the EU climbed from 47% (EU15) to 65% (EU27) between 1998 and 2012 (EUROPEN).

EPR programs emerge as influential drivers of economic benefits for both producers and governments. According to (Atasu & Subramanian, 2012), carrying out technical innovation within EPR schemes helps producers minimize product costs and boost economic benefits in terms of ecological design, regenerative raw materials, and recycling. For example, the EPR program in Japan led tea companies to stop using colored PET bottles and to start producing thinner ones, helping them reduce waste collection costs (Hosoda, 2004). From the perspective of local authorities, EPR can play a pivotal role in mitigating the financial burden of waste management ((O.E.C.D., 2014);(Walls, 2006),(W.W.F., 2020)). Through the strategic transfer of responsibility for end-of-life product management from government officials to producers, EPR effectively curtails the volume of waste managed by local authorities, thereby alleviating the associated financial costs (Campbell‐Johnston et al., 2021).

In addition, one of the most significant benefits of the EPR program is its unwavering encouragement of sustainable product design. (Tojo, 2004) argues that mandatory EPR programs have positive effects on the environmental design strategies of enterprises. EPR is an opportunity for manufacturers to imbue items with the values of durability, recyclability, and resource efficiency (Davies, 2023). (Yuqi Peng et al., 2020) and (Chang et al., 2019) also show that implementing EPR programs motivates producers to develop eco-innovation. This emphasis on eco-friendly design fits in perfectly with global efforts to reduce negative environmental repercussions.

EPR programs aim to reduce waste generation by encouraging responsible product disposal, recycling, and reuse (Wang, 2012). (Opoku, 2004) proposed that EPR promotes waste prevention and reduction during the manufacturing phase by connecting all phases of the product's life cycle and supporting actions for product improvement. It significantly reduces the quantity of waste that ends up on dumping grounds and burning facilities (Stephanie Newman et al., 2015). EPR incentivizes manufacturers to create goods with incredible lifespans and lower ecological impact, aligning with sustainability aims. EPR helps conserve to reduce resource consumption by promoting the recovery and recycling of materials (W.W.F., 2020). It minimizes the demand for virgin resources while also conserving natural resources (Ajania & K, 2019). The methodical recovery and reuse of materials adhere to the fundamentals of a circular economy, in which resources are efficiently conserved and reused, decreasing the strain on ecosystems and supporting sustainable resource management.

These advantages are supported by empirical research and scientific evidence, elucidating the favorable repercussions of EPR programs on environmental, economic, and societal domains.

EPR initiatives have been introduced across the globe to address the environmental consequences of product endof-life. However, in addition to their benefits, EPR programs have several limitations and obstacles.

The implementation of EPR programs requires significant financial investments on the part of both governments and manufacturers (O.E.C.D., 2021). Governments must budget for program development, database collection, regulatory compliance, and administrative tasks. Meanwhile, manufacturers are dealing with increased compliance costs, which include trash collection, recycling facilities, and reporting obligations. These interconnected financial repercussions can put pressure on the government and small and medium-sized enterprises. As a result, determining the exact expenses of program implementation and balancing the involvement of both government and business becomes critical to optimizing the efficiency of EPR projects.

EPR programs can overburden SMEs, which usually lack the necessary administrative and financial resources to handle the complexities of compliance (Yasuhiko Hotta et al., 2009). This circumstance can lead to decreased competitiveness and, in the worst-case scenario, business closures. SMEs may need assistance in completing reporting requirements, complying with recycling guidelines, or reacting to changes in packaging and product design. Addressing the compliance costs for SMEs is critical to maintaining a fair playing field and encouraging broad participation in EPR initiatives.

EPR regulations vary in complexity and scope across jurisdictions, posing significant obstacles to enterprises operating in numerous regions (Kolk et al., 2001). Regulatory differences in types of products, recycling goals, and reporting techniques create confusion and increase compliance costs. To address this challenge, manufacturers need to spend time understanding and responding to the demands of each jurisdiction in which they operate. Striking for EPR regulation harmonization at the regional, national, or global levels is a promising answer for reducing complexity and streamlining compliance for geographically diversified organizations.

Despite the intention of EPR programs to hold manufacturers responsible for end-of-life goods management, the potential of cost-shifting to consumers arises (Gottberg et al., 2006). Manufacturers may respond to increased compliance costs by raising product pricing, essentially shifting the financial responsibility back to end consumers. Striking a careful balance between responsibility for producers and customer affordability becomes a critical factor in EPR program design. Effective regulatory monitoring and methods to avoid cost pass-through to customers are critical to achieving EPR goals without placing an undue financial burden on the public.

One other possible challenge of EPR programs is the creation of free riders who benefit from the process without fully contributing or accurately disclosing their duties. These free riders can jeopardize the program's finances by avoiding their fair share of the expenditures connected with managing end-of-life products (Kalimo et al., 2015). Appropriate auditing and enforcement systems are essential for preventing free rider behavior and ensuring that the burden of duty is divided evenly among all participating enterprises.

Unintended consequences of EPR programs may happen (Gokce Esenduran & Wassenhove, 2002)(Işıl Alev & Atasu, 2019), including the relocation of waste disposal to places where EPR standards do not apply, the creation of illegal and informal recycling activities, or the transformation of the product design... Both businesses and consumers can look for solutions to avoid the financial consequences of EPR that may cause damage to the environment if not adequately controlled. Furthermore, whereas collection and recycling goals appear to be equivalent EPR adoption levers to raise total material recycled, they have opposite effects on influencing producer decisions regarding design. To illustrate, a calibrated numerical study of the photovoltaic panel industry demonstrates that more strict EPR standards can result in a PVP technology choice that has less recyclability and more excellent durability, resulting in higher greenhouse gas emissions (Huang et al., 2019). Through extensive program design and continuing evaluation, regulators and policymakers must anticipate and avoid these unforeseen impacts.

Some industries and manufacturers may be resistant to EPR programs because they see them as a financial burden, time-consuming for the organizations, and an obstacle to their existing business methods (Campbell‐Johnston et al., 2021). It is essential to engage all stakeholders, including producers, the government, and environmental groups, in developing and implementing EPR initiatives to overcome this resistance. Demonstrating the tangible benefits of EPR, such as reduced environmental impact and improved resource efficiency, is vital to convincing these entities of its value. Collaborating closely with industry leaders to create rules that balance ecological effectiveness and financial viability is also crucial. This collaborative approach ensures that EPR is tailored to fit different industries' unique needs and circumstances, making it more acceptable and sustainable in the long run.

Environmental managers in the government and other public authorities grapple with many challenges because they take charge of regulations, governance, and enforcement of the EPR program, manage waste management operators, connect producers, consumers, waste management operators, etc... ((O.E.C.D., 2014); WWF). It is more challenging for some who still need to familiarize themselves with the EPR concept in some countries. They spearhead the implementation of EPR programs, so high attention and support for them are necessary.

These restrictions highlight the significance of carefully developing and monitoring EPR programs to maximize benefits while minimizing unanticipated negative impacts. When well-designed and efficiently implemented, the benefits of EPR frequently outweigh the negatives. Addressing these possible downsides through deliberate program design, the involvement of stakeholders, and robust enforcement mechanisms can assist EPR programs in gaining tremendous success and sustainability.

As described above regarding the process of EPR regulations, the EPR system used in Vietnam from 2005 to 2020 can be stated to be based on a voluntary method. Without enforcement, this EPR model could not promote the desired effect and could not create a sustainable financial mechanism for the recovery and disposal of products and packaging after use; it has no impact on the process of using raw materials and product design. According to the laws at that time, a business could be considered to have discharged its responsibility for recovering discarded products when it set up locations for product recovery and disclosed requirements for recovery. Several surveys stated that the number of recovery places for discarded products set up by producers was small, while the rules notified for the retrieval appear to be highly rigorous. For example, Panasonic Vietnam has designed two sites for recovering its products in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. This company receives only authentic items or undamaged goods without broken or missing parts. It requires consumers to personally transport their products to the recovery points and does not offer any promotional benefits for exchanging products. Moreover, the country's recovery process is relatively challenging, exemplified by Toyota Vietnam, which employs a 10-stage recovery process. As a result, despite over 15 years of implementing legislation on the duty for recovering discarded, producers and importers in Vietnam have yet to recover any product. (Nguyen, 2022)

To transition from a voluntary to a mandatory EPR framework, the Law on Environmental Protection in 2020 in Vietnam established some principles and methods for implementation. Firstly, the obligatory recycling rate and criteria were established. Secondly, methods for producers to fulfill their recycling duties based on the principles of the market were regulated. Thirdly, implementing the EPR scheme through consensus among many stakeholders, including the government, businesses, and environmental and social parties, is controlled. Fourth, the estimation of payment rates for gathering and disposing of household wastes based on volume to increase at-source sorting of household wastes (the primary source of used items and package generation) was issued. Fifth, regulations for promoting the construction of infrastructure needed for solid waste collection and disposal, improving the recycling industry, providing support and incentives for environmental protection actions, and encouraging circular economy development were implemented and developed (Nguyen, 2022). Since the enactment of the Environmental Protection Law of 2020, starting in 2021, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in Vietnam has been actively conducting various workshops and training sessions. These educational events are designed to familiarize producers and importers with the new regulations, ensuring they understand and are prepared to implement them.

The Environmental Protection Law in Vietnam in 2020 requires EPR in two circumstances, including (1) products and packages that can and must be collected for recycling and (2) non-recyclable, dangerous products and packaging that must be collected for treatment (The National Assembly, 2020). Mandatory frameworks in the Vietnamese EPR program are shown in detail below.

Vietnam's waste management and recycling system reflects the linear economy's dominance and systemic failure, with only 10-15% of municipal solid waste being reused or recycled. Recycling often occurs in low-tech "craft villages", leading to pollution (Manh et al., 2021). Nguyen (Nguyen Khanh Bui et al., 2020) notes that most recycling facilities are small in scale, outdated, and need more management and control from environmental protection authorities. (Phu et al., 2018) states that while Hoi An City has a high potential for improving recycling, the recycling system is simple with rudimentary facilities and low effectiveness. Overall, Vietnam's recycling infrastructure needs improvement in terms of technology, management, and policy support. Therefore, the establishment of robust waste management and recycling infrastructure stands as a formidable challenge in the implementation of the EPR frameworks within the Vietnamese context.

The existence of adequate infrastructure that includes waste collection, segregation, and recycling assumes is vital for the seamless functioning of EPR programs (Gui, 2020). In the absence of a well-developed waste management system, the effective execution of EPR becomes a problematic endeavor. Realizing this underscores the need for substantial investments directed toward the construction of recycling facilities, the development of transportation networks, and the establishment of waste processing facilities. Furthermore, the adaptation of these systems to accommodate the frequently diverse and rapidly evolving product landscape poses a multifaceted challenge.

Vietnam's recycling infrastructure is still in its early stages of development. Current research on the country's recycling capabilities is limited and tends to concentrate on specific areas such as electronic waste, plastics, and construction debris. (Lockrey et al., 2016) discuss the inefficiencies in handling construction and demolition waste in Vietnam, emphasizing the lack of proper classification, delegation, and regulation of waste streams by private companies. Similarly, (Hoang et al., 2021) state that the absence of a formal recycling industry exacerbates the inadequacy of construction and demolition waste management in Hanoi. Studies regarding plastic recycling and Ewaste in Vietnam reveal that these activities are predominantly conducted in informal settings, particularly in smallscale craft communities. Due to a lack of modern recycling technology and organization, the typical processes pose health risks to individuals as well as an increased risk of environmental pollution ((Salhofer et al., 2021); (Duc & Petrus, 2016)). Consequently, comprehensive studies and assessments are very necessary to find out the most suitable locations for recycling facilities and create recycling processes that are adapted to Vietnam's specific features.

In developing countries, the informal sector often shoulders a substantial portion of waste management tasks, a trend to which Vietnam is no exception (Johannes et al., 2021). According to (Tong et al., 2021), Vietnam's waste management system heavily relies on the informal sector, which handles the bulk of recycling efforts. Their study emphasizes that this sector not only contributes to income diversification for the impoverished but also actively participates in waste recycling, advocating for its integration into the overall waste management process. (Nguyen et al., 2021)provide data on the activities of informal waste workers and aggregators in several Vietnamese cities, demonstrating their presence and spatial allocation. (Bercegol, 2017) discusses the co-existence, opposition, and potential integration of the informal recycling sector with municipal waste services in fast-growing Asian cities, including Hanoi in Vietnam. Moreover, junk buyers in Hanoi play a significant role in recycling, accounting for 8.8% of recycling by weight or 26.0% by volume and specifically recycling 25.5% of containers and packaging waste (Kawai et al., 2012). These findings underscore the significance of the informal sector in waste recycling in Vietnam and the need for recognition and integration into waste management policies.

Introducing EPR programs may engender disruptions to these informal systems, potentially resulting in job displacement and the emergence of social tensions (O.E.C.D., 2016). As Vietnam has only recently begun mandating EPR policies, there is an urgent need for studies that explore the seamless integration of the informal waste management sector into the formalized EPR framework in Vietnam. To date, no research has been found on this specific issue. Such investigations could include identifying opportunities for integration and assessing the socioeconomic impacts of such integration. This endeavor promotes environmentally friendly waste management practices in Vietnam, which constitutes a holistic and multifaceted approach to the difficult problems with EPR implementation.

The absence of essential stakeholders is one of the common challenges in the implementation of the EPR scheme in developing countries (Johannes et al., 2021)(Park et al., 2018). Therefore, in the context of Vietnam, this difficulty is likely to surface.

To effectively engage stakeholders, evidence-based approaches are essential, and these approaches can be facilitated through the provision of empirical data obtained from scientific research. Such data serves as the cornerstone for informed dialogue among stakeholders. This evidence-based dialogue, in turn, fosters a conducive environment for collaboration, ultimately leading to the development of more effective and widely accepted EPR schemes.

There are few studies related to the roles of stakeholders in waste management, particularly in the EPR scheme in Vietnam. (Le et al., 2018) highlight the importance of stakeholder involvement in sustainable waste management and identify local authorities as the primary stakeholders responsible for managing municipal solid waste in agriculture in Hanoi. (Nguyen Duc Quang & Hai, 2016) and (Quang et al., 2017) found that the function of intermediate stakeholders, the facilities for E-waste treatment, and monetary distribution flows under the lack of legislation are the primary elements that contributed to the failure of the EPR system's implementation in Vietnam. (Nguyen, 2023) synthesizes the experience of some countries in organizing and managing registration agencies for packaging manufacturers and importers, clarifies the roles of relevant parties, and offers potential recommendations for Vietnam in applying the EPR scheme. Therefore, a research direction of notable relevance involves analyzing the influence of stakeholder engagement tactics within certain industries to mitigate resistance to EPR adoption in Vietnam. This study intends to investigate the complex relationship between stakeholder engagement strategies and successful resistance mitigation throughout the implementation of EPR efforts in Vietnam. The goal of the study is to shed light on practical strategies that can raise the acceptance and efficiency of EPR programs within the Vietnamese context.

The Asian developing countries' EPR scheme is facing challenges, one of the primary ones being the identification of producers. This difficulty is pronounced because many producers in these regions, especially in developing nations, operate as small, unregistered businesses. These entities, often referred to as EPR "free riders" (Kojima et al., 2009), evade the formal regulatory frameworks established to manage and reduce environmental impact. Their status as "free riders" allows them to avoid contributing to the environmental costs associated with the life cycles of their products, a responsibility central to the EPR principle. This avoidance not only undermines the environmental objectives of these schemes but also creates an imbalance in the market, putting compliant businesses at a disadvantage. Forcing unregistered small-scale traders or small industries to participate in the EPR system presents a formidable challenge, especially when they represent a substantial portion of the market. Notably, the challenges of free-riding and managing orphan products often emerge prominently in the initial stages of implementing EPR schemes (O.E.C.D., 2014). Therefore, devising pertinent strategies to address these intricacies within the context of Vietnam is not merely important but, in fact, imperative.

The endeavor to combat free-riding and manage orphan products within EPR systems represents a challenge necessitating a comprehensive approach. Numerous studies have explored and proposed different strategies to mitigate the issues of orphan products and free riding within EPR systems on a global scale. According to (Frithjof Laubinger et al., 2021); and (Mark Hilton et al., 2001),(Mark Hilton et al., 2019), fee modulation schemes must be carefully designed to eliminate free-riding issues. Mark Hilton (2019) states that a lack of awareness, and the insufficient and complex enforcement of the EPR rules can lead to free riding and orphan products, so awareness campaigns are needed. Peer pressure and the disclosure of free riders can serve to discourage free riding and the final owner pays after the point of consumption, providing a finance option for orphan items (Mark Hilton et al., 2001). Monitoring is a critical way of guaranteeing compliance with an EPR program and ensuring that free-riding is minimized (O.E.C.D., 2001).In addition, because multi-seller platforms contribute significantly to free riding, (Jones, 2020) suggests that online platforms should be held responsible if they cannot demonstrate that an organization that sells an item on their site makes an "eco-contribution".

Given that Vietnam is in the transition stage towards a mandatory EPR program, it is crucial to start research to identify strategies for reducing free-riding and dealing with orphan products, which will improve the effectiveness of the EPR system. The main goal of this research is to develop and seek strategies to reduce free-riding and deal with orphan products within the EPR system, thereby improving the program's environmental and economic outcomes. Vietnam could benefit a lot from the experiences of both developed and developing countries to choose an appropriate strategy that will help the EPR framework be successfully established.

There are four primary solutions for improving recycling infrastructure.

Six proposed solutions aimed to address the challenges in the informal sector are presented.

The following are six major approaches for boosting stakeholder engagement.

For managing EPR compliance, there are seven necessary solutions.