In terms of functional value, ‘building a wartime capital’ is the most important. The establishment of a capital that simultaneously served as a war command post and maintained the administrative, legislative, and judicial functions of the newly founded liberal democracy following the Pusan Perimeter is a rare case in international history.

When analyzing the international historical context of the Korean War, the 'Cold War' must be mentioned or explained. The Cold War period is defined as 'starting two years after the end of World War II and ending in 1991 when the former Soviet Union collapsed' (Figure 2).

In this part of international political history, the Korean War is viewed as an 'event' that occurred during the expansion of military and economic alliances, ideologies, and regimes between the East and West, along with the subsequent checks and deterrence measures (Figure 3).

It was a conflict between North and South Korea from 1950 to 1953, with the ideological struggle between communism and democracy as a prominent feature as global powers became involved. Specifically, the Korean War, which began on June 25, 1950, was mainly driven by North Korea's advance and was opposed by the United Nations forces, including the U.S. Army, which established the Pusan Perimeter with U.N. support. It laid the groundwork for the country's development and territorial restoration (Figure 4).

In particular, the Pusan Perimeter was a 140-mile (about 234 km) defensive line established by UN forces in southeastern South Korea, centered on the port city of Busan during the Korean War. This line was a crucial point where UN forces could halt the North Korean army's advance and launch a counterattack. It extended from the Korean Strait to the East Sea, with the Nakdong River on the western boundary and mountainous terrain on the northern boundary ((Institute of Military History of the Ministry of National Defense, 2008)).

This defensive line enabled them to defend Busan, a strategically vital port city for relief and military logistics, and the country's emergency capital. From an international historical perspective, it gave them a strong defensive position where UN forces could regroup and launch counterattacks. Holding this line prevented further advances by the North Korean army into South Korea, ultimately laying the groundwork for strategic operations such as the Inchon Landing on 15 September 1950, which ended on 19 September. It also set the stage for turning the tide of the war and preserving South Korea's sovereignty by using irregular forces, such as the Yeongdo guerrillas, who infiltrated the enemy's rear in the Busan Yeongdo Island area to disrupt operations and destroy enemy facilities (Briscoe, 2013).

The city of Busan developed into a modern port city after its port opened in 1876, following the Ganghwa Treaty. Its port expanded significantly after Korea and Japan's annexation in 1910, becoming the main shipping hub on the Korean Peninsula. During Japanese colonial rule, the port became a center of exploitation and later served as a gateway for Japan's continental invasion in the 1930s. In the Korean War, Busan played a vital role, with most United Nations Allied Forces, led by the U.S. Eighth Army, entering through the port, which also handled military supplies and civilian relief efforts (Seo, 2023). Consequently, Busan became a city marked by political, economic, and social diversity, symbolizing its international presence while maintaining a strategic military importance. The port supported the United Nations and the Republic of Korea armed forces by managing command and control during the Pusan Perimeter operation and by providing logistical support to sustain supplies for UN and ROK troops along the Nakdong River, reinforcing its crucial role in the conflict (Figure 5).

The wartime capital role in Busan was more than just a political evacuation. Legislative, judicial, and administrative functions were relocated there to make use of the existing infrastructure at the time. For example, the National Assembly held meetings at the Busan Theater and the Culture Theater, and legislative activities continued. The legislative activities recorded in the minutes of the National Assembly and the official gazette at the time show that Busan was not just a temporary administrative base but a true center of government operations. During the Korean War, from December 1950 to early January 1951, the UN forces retreated from Seoul in response to an offensive by the Chinese People's Volunteer Army and communist forces. After regaining control of the city post-January 4, 1951, the National Assembly of the Republic of Korea relocated to the Gyeongnam Provincial Office building in Busan. It continued its functions without interruption after the Constituent Assembly, thus maintaining the government's legislative authority (City, 2025). Therefore, Busan, the wartime capital, can be recognized as historically significant because it was a place where constitutional functions were upheld and democracy was actively practiced.

The social value of Busan Wartime Capital Heritage is closely linked to the survival and recovery of refugees. It exemplifies the choices made under desperate circumstances, reflecting a culture of emergency use and sharing, as well as ongoing reconstruction efforts even after the armistice. A government survey conducted a year after the Korean War began revealed that refugees arrived from all over the country, resulting in Busan's population soaring from 470,750 in 1949 to 844,134 in 1951—an increase of over 370,000. As of March 1951, the majority of these refugees had come from Seoul (165,878), Gyeonggi (32,599), North Korea (33,891), South Gyeongsang Province, and Gangwon Province (Cha et al., 2010). Over one million refugees sought refuge in Busan, transforming it into both a battlefield of survival and a city grappling with extreme deprivation. The influx overwhelmed urban services, leading to social chaos and a severe housing shortage. Refugees often lived on mountainous hills in makeshift shacks vulnerable to collapse, with limited access to water and electricity, and constant threats of fire, hunger, and hardship. Factors such as unmanaged refugee populations, the development of shantytowns, aid supplies from overseas, and devastating fires like those at Gukje Market and Busan Station profoundly altered the city’s landscape. Yet, amid these struggles, the resilience and hope of refugees became the driving force behind Busan’s social and spatial transformation. These displaced individuals, who had once enjoyed peaceful lives elsewhere, now relied on the coast, riverside, mountain villages, and marketplaces as their new homes and workplaces. The ‘One Room Emptied Movement,' a response to the desperate need to sustain families through market stalls and to find shelter, exemplifies the city's humanity and inclusiveness—highlighting how the trauma of war was met with resilience and shaping Busan’s identity as a city that endured and transformed through adversity.

The humanitarian value of Busan Wartime Capital Heritage lies in its demonstration of humanitarianism, notably as the only city where international aid was present during armed conflict in the Cold War era, exemplifying humanity without distinction between friend and foe, as enshrined in the Geneva Conventions. During the Korean War, international cooperation enabled the emergency use of local facilities to support refugees, embodying a universal humanitarian spirit at the global, national, and regional levels amid Cold War geopolitics and the war’s aftermath. Following Korea’s recognition as the sole government on the peninsula in 1948 and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, the UN supported South Korea’s government through UN Security Council Resolution 84 (Council, 1950) and peacekeeping efforts, with over 60 nations contributing aid despite limited independence among many countries at the time. This aid framework included US technical assistance, UNKRA, and KAVA, underscoring Busan’s pivotal role in refugee acceptance and settlement during the conflict. Reconstruction efforts involved organizations such as KCAC, UNKRA, the government, and military forces, fostering domestic and international solidarity and laying the foundation for future responsibilities in protecting children (City, 2025). Additionally, Busan’s involvement in the Korean War, set within Cold War international politics divided between communist and liberal blocs, underscored its importance in global cooperation and support for Korea’s reconstruction, symbolizing the protection of humanity and the experiences of refugees on both national and international levels, thereby highlighting the historical and functional value of Busan Wartime Capital Heritage.

To better understand, several examples of cultural heritage sites where humanity has been or is being practiced are presented, highlighting the differences between these and the Busan Wartime Capital heritage sites.

At first, Holocaust Rescue Networks had been related to the activities and traces of individuals and organizations who worked to rescue Jews during World War II. The Related World Heritage Site is Auschwitz Birkenau - German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945) (Centre, 1979). This heritage is distinct from the Busan Wartime Capital Heritage during the Korean War, which reflects the spirit of coexistence, solidarity, and inclusion, and is located in a strategically important geopolitical location through international solidarity.

Secondly, disaster response can be raised as a comparative case for the heritage of humanity. For example, the Historic Centre of Évora is related to the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake and the development of Enlightenment thought. At that time, Aid was provided by Spain, France, the United Kingdom, and Germany after the earthquake. Questions arose as to whether natural disasters were God's will, leading to the development of more scientific urban planning and architectural methods (Centre, 1986).

This heritage site has a distinct contribution to its formation from the Busan Wartime Capital Heritage site during the Korean War, which was linked to human-caused physical conflict.

Thirdly, regarding Heritage related to overcoming disease, Toledo Santacruz Hospital, a charity hospital in Spain, is included in the World Heritage Site ‘Historic City of Toledo.’ Toledo retains a series of outstanding examples of 15th- and 16th-century architecture: the church of San Juan de los Reyes and the Cathedral, the hospitals of San Juan Bautista and Santa Cruz, the Puerta Nueva de Bisagra, etc. Each of these monuments is a perfect example of a particular type of architecture of the Spanish Golden Age, whether religious, hospital, or military. Moreover, Toledo witnessed the emergence, starting in the Middle Ages, of a Mudejar style that combined the structural and decorative elements of Visigoth and Islamic art, adapting them into successful styles, as represented in buildings such as Santiago del Arrabal (13th century), the Moorish Workshop and Puerta del Sol gate (14th century), the wainscot of Santa Cruz Hospital and the chapter house of the Cathedral (15th and 16th centuries), etc. The value of the hospital building is evaluated solely as an example of architectural style (Centre, 1986).

The Historic City of Toledo, with its legacy of hospital facilities linked to representative philanthropic activities, stands apart from the other philanthropic heritage sites that formed the Busan Wartime Capital during the Cold War in the 20th century. In particular, the Historic City of Toledo is a comprehensive urban heritage site that reflects the city's entire history.

Lastly, when considering heritage related to peaceful diplomacy, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) in Japan stands out. This site has served as a powerful symbol of world peace for over fifty years since the devastation caused by the most destructive force ever unleashed by humanity. The memorial highlights a different aspect of human resilience and can be seen as a legacy of peace linked to the conclusion of war (Centre, 1996). In contrast, the Busan Wartime Capital Heritage, associated with the Korean War and involving multiple nations during the Cold War, offers a different humanitarian lesson. It embodies international solidarity through the diverse refugees who resided in Busan at the time and the emergency capital operations that served as a springboard for national recovery.

The dictionary definition of "Coexistence" is "the state of being together at the same time and place (Press, XXXX). In this regard, information, education, religion, and urban infrastructure such as waterways and streets related to Busan citizens, South Korean refugees from other regions, and North Korean refugees who gathered in the strategically located city of Busan to ensure safety and survival during the Korean War can be classified as related heritage. In other words, this section closely links the formation of the United Nations Command to the outcomes of efforts to sustain liberal democracy in the Republic of Korea.

Busan, as the wartime capital, played a crucial role in providing both administrative and military support to safeguard the nation and government functions and economic support to protect its people and stabilize daily life. Its responsibilities included maintaining government operations, supporting war recovery through legislative, judicial, and diplomatic efforts, ensuring national defense, and facilitating military cooperation, including joint efforts with UN forces. During the wartime capital period beginning in July 1952, a constitutional amendment was enacted, and Syngman Rhee was elected as the second president via direct elections. A currency reform was implemented to curb inflation caused by the war, with Busan handling 85% of the country’s trade at that time. The city also hosted UN organizations, various foreign embassies—including the United States—and the US military headquarters, which managed military operations and logistics. Notable infrastructures such as Pier 1 of Busan Port, the National Central Observatory, Yeongdo Bridge, and Bokbyeongsan Mountain Drainage Area exemplify how diverse groups collaborated during this era to achieve common goals.

Pier 1 of Busan Port (Figure 6) served as a gateway for 2 million UN forces, transporting supplies and refugees and providing relief supplies, making it a historic site that illustrates the economic aspects of refugee life. Pier 1 was a key hub that coordinated and connected the wartime capital's logistics and transportation system, and it was particularly used as a space for special vessels such as hospital ships and power lines. Busan Port, where Pier 1 is located, was a key port for the repatriation of prisoners of war, the transport of refugees, and the unloading of humanitarian supplies. It can also be seen as a site where the wartime humanitarian obligations of the Geneva Conventions (Conventions III and IV: Protection of Prisoners of War and Civilian Persons) were put into practice. Currently, excavations are underway at Pier 1 to examine remains from the time of the wartime capital (City, 2019).

The National Central Observatory (Figure 7) utilized the Busan Regional Meteorological Administration, located on Bokbyeongsan Mountain, north of Daecheong-ro. The National Central Observatory provided regular weather information to refugees, providing information on the operation of the fishing industry, their primary livelihood, and the management of ships and hospital ships transporting relief supplies. Its location, free of surrounding structures and offering a commanding view of Busan Port, played a crucial role in managing the coastal waters where relief and aid supplies flowed in and out (City, 2019).

Yeongdo Bridge (Figure 8), completed in 1934, was Korea's first land and drawbridge and served as a gathering place for refugees to meet and communicate. During the Korean War, the bridge was raised six times a day. This symbolic significance drew refugees here, hoping to find family members separated during the evacuation, and it became a place to soothe their sorrow and longing for home. Fortune-telling services, which listened to these stories, also flourished. Furthermore, it appeared in various songs that sang the joys and sorrows of the refugee period, soothing the sorrow of the displaced. Its influence continues to this day, and Yeongdo Bridge is recognized by the Korean people as a symbol of refuge (City, 2019).

The Bokbyeongsan Mt. Drainage area (Figure 9) played a vital role, drawing water from the Seongjigok Reservoir through a 15km pipeline to supply tap water to refugees who crowded the Daecheong-ro and Sanbok-ro areas of the city center. Due to a severe water shortage at the time, it was supplied only twice daily, but it helped ease the suffering. To accommodate the constant influx of refugees into the city, the limited capacity of the Bokbyeongsan Mt. Drainage area was continuously reinforced from 1952 to 1955, providing a source of drinking water for the refugees. It continues to function as a reservoir to this day (City, 2025).

"Solidarity" refers to support by one person or group of people for another because they share feelings, opinions, and aims (Press, XXXX). In this regard, the sites of administration, notification, military force, international cooperation, and solidarity that demonstrate the relationship between the South Korean government and the UN forces within the wartime capital during the Korean War can be classified as related heritage.

The judiciary operated out of the courts and the district prosecutor's office. The temporary presidential residence, now the wartime capital memorial hall, and the building now housing the Seokdang Museum of Dong-A University, which was once a temporary government complex, were also political spaces established during this period. Administrative functions also persisted, with the Examination Committee and the Ministry of Education being assigned to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry during the Building of Namseon Electrics, and the prosecutor's office moving to the District Prosecutors' Office. Therefore, Busan holds historical significance as a wartime capital where a genuine democratic government operated with all three branches functioning, not just a provisional government.

In detail, after liberation from the Japanese colonial period, the Camp Hialeah (Busan Citizens' Park) (Figure 10) served as the Busan Base Command under the US Military Government in Korea. After the outbreak of the Korean War, it served as a key base for the US Forces Korea and the UN forces. It is described as a historic site of international solidarity, where the UN, governments, and citizens supported international peace in the face of wartime crises and cooperated to overcome them. It was also a hub of international cooperation, where UN forces and international organizations gathered to provide supplies and relief. Beginning in the 1990s, through Busan citizens' campaigns for the return of US military bases, it was reborn as Busan Citizens' Park, a memorial park. It is a space that embodies the complex memories of modern and contemporary Korean history, where military bases were transformed into international relief hubs and civic spaces (City, 2019).

Gyeongmudae (Temporary Presidential Residence) (Figure 11) is located at the end of Daecheong-ro, the primary axis of the modern port system that extends vertically from the port. It was originally the official residence of the Governor of Gyeongnam Province. During wartime, the facility served as the President's office and residence and also housed various diplomatic offices. Meetings were held with ministers and ambassadors from UN support countries, the Commander-in-Chief of the United Nations Command, and the United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea, and it also served as a press center. It is a historic site where policy decisions, diplomatic initiatives, and announcements were made, and it is evidence of efforts to address national crises and preserve the nation's existence even amid the threat of war (City, 2019).

The Provisional Central Governmental Office (Figure 12) is located on the right side of the Daecheong-ro axis, diagonally opposite the Gyeongmudae (Temporary Presidential Residence). It served as the Gyeongnam Provincial Office and served as the administrative center of the Busan wartime capital. It housed the State Council, the highest deliberative body for government affairs, which coordinated and decided on the affairs of government ministries; the Office of the Prime Minister; eight government ministries (Ministry of General Affairs, Ministry of Public Information, Ministry of Government Legislation, Ministry of Planning and Budget, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of National Defense, and Ministry of Justice); and the Offices of the President, Vice President, and Prime Minister. It was here that the first official announcement regarding the relocation of the wartime capital was made (August 18, 1950), and the Refugee Countermeasures Guidelines were established on August 24. It was also here that the Agreement on Economic Coordination between the Republic of Korea and the Unified Command, pursuant to a UN Security Council resolution, was signed (May 24, 1952) (Korea, 1952); (City, 2019).

"Inclusiveness" refers to the deliberate inclusion of deliberately including people, things, ideas, etc., from all sections of society and points of view (Press, XXXX). In particular, the residential, burial, cultural, and medical facilities associated with South Korean and North Korean refugees, UN forces, and enemy forces who flocked to Busan during the Korean War are linked as heritage sites.

The heritage of refugee life reflects the hardships faced by refugees who gathered from all over the country to escape war, as well as their resilient lives that continue to this day, including the Ami-dong Tombstone Village and the Uam-dong Cattle Shed Village. These sites stand as evidence of the willingness to accept around a million refugees who had nowhere to go, capturing the essence of their residential life during that period. The ‘Uam-dong Cattle Shed Village,’ built initially as a quarantine station for cattle during the Japanese colonial period—used for colonial exploitation—serves as a unique residential heritage that vividly depicts life during the refugee era and shows how the common people’s housing transformed when the stable was repurposed into a refugee residence. The ‘Ami-dong Tombstone Village,’ developed during the Japanese colonial period as a Japanese cemetery, was abandoned after liberation with unclaimed graves. Built on a graveyard, this site symbolizes the urgency of survival even amid death, and its distinctiveness remains today as a heritage that reflects life and housing during the refugee period. Additionally, Busan Port Pier 1 is a heritage site that highlights the economic aspect of refugee life, as it was a space where refugees found employment and made a living.

The Ami-dong Tombstone Village (Figure 13) was an emergency refugee housing site, urgently constructed from a former Japanese cemetery. Because it was a public cemetery, it was not completed until 1953, when the housing shortage was at its peak. Here, visitors can encounter unique houses and stone walls built from the original Japanese cemetery and tombstones, where the living and the dead coexist. The exposed tombstones used in the refugee housing project have been identified as 537 at 297 locations, spread over approximately 40,000 square meters. This site embodies the spirit of coexistence and inclusiveness rooted in humanity, and it has continued to expand and transform even after the armistice agreement (City, 2025).

The Uam-dong Cattle Shed Village (Figure 14), located at the Quarantine station for moving cattle from Busan, a site of Japanese cattle exploitation, was abandoned after liberation. Some returning Koreans used it as a temporary shelter. After the outbreak of war, a refugee camp for approximately 10,000 people was established at the nearby enemy-flagged wharf, and the Cattle Shed shelter was fully utilized as refugee housing. Each household was assigned a 3.5- to 4.5-meter-square unit (approximately 16 square meters), with approximately 25 households per barracks. It is confirmed that a total of 370 households lived in this shelter. This heritage site embodies the desperation and hardships of the refugees who were forced to live in these small barracks. This site, too, has undergone continuous expansion and transformation to reach its present state (City, 2025).

The U.S. Embassy and U.S. Information Service (Figure 15) was established in 1949 as the U.S. Overseas Public Information Service's Busan branch. Since August 1950, it has maintained close diplomatic ties with the South Korean government, fostering international cooperation with the UN and various countries. It also served as a communication channel between the UN and refugees. Specifically, it simultaneously served as the U.S. Embassy, where practical U.S. military, diplomatic, and economic policies were communicated and implemented, and as the U.S. Information Service, where information was exchanged with stakeholders from all walks of life, including UN forces stationed in the wartime capital and international organizations. It also served as an international public relations function, conveying the devastation of war and the need for relief abroad and stimulating international public opinion to encourage diplomatic and humanitarian assistance (City, 2019).

The U.N. Memorial Cemetery (Figure 16) is the world's only cemetery and memorial space (consisting of a symbolic cemetery and a main cemetery) for UN soldiers killed in action. On December 15, 1955, the United Nations, after receiving the resolution from the Korean government’s National Assembly, adopted Resolution 977(X) at the UN General Assembly to permanently oversee this cemetery (Assembly, 1955). In December 1959, an agreement was signed between the Republic of Korea and the United Nations for the establishment and maintenance of the United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Korea (Nations, 1959). The cemetery was donated to the UN, and since 1960, the United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) has been responsible for its management (Lee, 2024). It serves as a symbol of peace, preserved through UN and global cooperation, and as a place of remembrance, honoring and conveying the noble will of the victims.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not -for-profit sector/ individuals.

Not applicable.

The author(s) declare that there is no competing interest.